Analytical Methods
The laboratory survey indicated that a wide-ranging expertise in the area of radionuclide determination methods can be found within the STAR partners. Expertise covers analysis methods for natural radionuclides like U-238 and Th-232 series, artificial radionuclides such as Pu, Am, Sr, Tc, as well as methods for nutrient and ion concentration determinations. Most of the analytical methods are either evaluated or accredited by an external evaluator, which shows the remarkably high quality of the laboratories. General descriptions (and known problems and their solutions, uncertainties and any QA knowledge etc) of some of the methods used by STAR partners can be here:
Americium analysis Am-241 | |
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![]() | ![]() Urine samples are first acidified and co-precipitated with Ca, heated and precipitate allowed to settle and centrifuged. The sample is washed with acid, evaporated; further washings allow a white precipitate to form. Americium is separated with TRU resin and prepared for electrodeposition and samples are counted using alpha spectroscopy. |
Carbon-14 analysis | |
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![]() | ![]() The sample preparation for the liquid scintillation counting was done with 307 Sample Oxidizer by PerkinElmer. Dried environmental samples were combusted completely in the oxygen atmosphere to carbon dioxide and water. The 14CO2 was absorbed by special reagent CarboSorb E and mixed with liquid scintillation cocktail Permafluor E+. The apparatus is almost fully automatic and the combustion of one sample takes time for only few minutes. Samples were counted with low level liquid scintillation counter 1220 Quantulus. |
Gamma spectroscopy - STUK | |
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![]() | ![]() Activity concentrations of gamma-emitting nuclides are measured with a low-background high-resolution HPGe spectrometer. The measured energy range is 30 - 2700 keV. The relative efficiency of the detectors range from 35 - 90%. The samples are meaured in sample cylindrical beakers or 0.5L Marinelli beaker on top of the detector end cap. The efficiency calibrations of the detectors have been obtained with both seperate single line nuclides in water solutions and multi-nuclides standard sources. The following nuclides have been used: 40K, 51Cr, 57Co, 60Co, 65Zn, 88Y, 109Cd, 113Sn, 137Cs, 203Hg, 210Pb, 241Am. The specta are analysed using either UniSampo/Shaman software package or STUK developed GAMMA-99 computer code. The correction for sample height and density, as well as the effect of true coincidence summing, are taken into account in calculation of the results. The uncertainties include both statistical uncertainty and uncertainty due to the efficiency calibration. |
Tritium analysis H-3 | |
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![]() | ![]() Water samples are distilled twice and following this samples are transferred to 250 ml plastic bottles to wait for measurement. 8 ml of distilled water is added to the sample, and 12 ml of UltimaGold uLLT scintillation cocktail is added to scintillation vials, the sample is shaken thoroughly. Vials are then cool dried for two days using the Quantulus or in the refrigerator. Measurement time for samples is 300 minutes, for background 1000 minutes. |
Instructions for freeze dryer | |
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![]() | ![]() Fresh samples are put in the shelves of the freeze dryer, the freeze dryer switched on and the the samples are allowed to freeze dry under vacuum for 2 days. At the end of the process the freeze dryer is switched off and the samples removed. Samples can now be used in further analysis. |
Gross alpha analysis from swipe samples | |
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![]() Surface contamination can be measured indirect analysing activity of swipe samples. Indirect methods can be used only for break-away contamination. Swipe can be dry or moisten. In the results calculations, ratio of break-away contamination need to be taken into account. Determination of the alpha activity of the swipe is made using liquid scintillation spectrometers. |
Gross beta and residual beta analysis; Gross beta in water | |
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![]() | ![]() Water sample are heated to near dryness and residue evaporated onto stainless steel planchette until complete dryness.Potassium is determined by atomic emission spectrometry. Samples are counted for beta by proportional counting. |
Gross alpha analysis for water samples | |
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![]() | ![]() Water samples are measured out into scintillation vials before being dried (by freeze drying or under I.R. lamp. The sample residue is dissolved in of HCl acid, the sample is then shaken for 1hr to aid sample dissolving . Liquid scintillation cocktail (Ultimate Gold AB) is added and the vial closed tightly. With each batch, a background sample is prepared using HCl and Liquid scintillation cocktail. Samples are stored for 30 days in a dark room to attain radioactive equilibrium between 226Ra/222Rn. Samples are then counted using liquid scintillation spectrometers. |
Element Concentration Measurements (AAS) | |
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![]() | ![]() The atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is a selective analytical method based on the absorption of radiation by free atoms in the ground state. A given wavelength of an element corresponds to an optical transition between atoms in the ground state and exited level. The absorption is related to the concentration of the atoms and thus to the concentration of the element. By measuring the intensity of the absorbed radiation the amount of an element in the sample may be determined. |
Neutron activation analysis | |
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![]() | ![]() Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is a nuclear process used for determining the concentrations of elements in materials, applications research fields ranging from chemistry to archaeology. NAA is based upon neuron activation, where the sample is bombarded with neutrons, forming a radioactive isotope, studying the spectra emissions of the material, can determine the activity concentration of the elements contained. NAA is very sensitive and is therefore used to analyse for minor elements, which are present in very low concentrations. The method is especially useful for trace element analysis. NAA can detect up to 74 elements depending on the experimental procedure, with minimum detection limits ranging from 10-7 to 10-15 g/g, depending on the elements and matrix materials. |
Pb-210 from water sample using Trischem Sr-resin | |
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![]() | ![]() Samples are first stabilised using Pb and Fe carrier, pH altered if required and sample heated until a yellow precipitate forms, allowed to cool and centrifuged to collect precipitate. Residue dissolved in HNO3, Separating 210Pb uses Trischem Sr columns, eluted using 8M HCl. Sample is then evaporated to dryness, dissolved using HNO3, then transferred to a weighed scintillation vial. Re-weighing the vial and take 0.15 ml aliquot transferring to a weighed scintillation vial for AAS determination of Stable Pb. Stable Pb measured using AAS and 210Pb using liquid scintillation spectrometry after storing for 18 days. |
Plutonium and americium analysis from soil, vegetation and sediment | |
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Polonium and lead from water sample | |
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![]() | ![]() Determination of polonium is based on radiochemical separation and alpha spectrometric measurements. Water samples is spiked and evaporated, to a fixed volume. Transferred to a Teflon decanter, adding HCl, reduce and deposit Po on silver disk, count activity using AlphaAnalyst spectrometer. Store remaining solution for 6 months, spike mix and deposit Po on silver disk, counting using AlphaAnalyst spectrometer. Polonium and lead activities are then calculated. |
Pretreatment of seawater for transuranic analysis | |
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![]() | ![]() Large volumes of seawater (litres), are acidified, precipitate formed and allowed to settle overnight. The precipitate transferred to the bottom of a precipitation vessel, the aqueous fraction removed by suction, precipitate washed with ammonia, allowed to settle, remove any remaining aqueous fraction. Dissolved in minimum volume of HCl and diluted with deionised water. Heat remaining sample and precipitate using Fe(OH)3, allow to cool and allowed to settle. Precipitate transferred and centrifuged, discarding solution. Dry precipitate and re-dissolve using acid and continue to purify sample for use in plutonium analysis. |
Pretreatment - STUK | |
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Radium analysis Ra-226, Ra-228 | |
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Radon analysis Rn-222 | |
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![]() | ![]() Radon is measured in a homogeneous solution with a liquid scintillation spectrometer 1414 Guardian-TM (PerkinElmer). The sample is prepared by adding water to a glass vial (equipped with a cap containing an aluminium foil) pre-filled with liquid scintillation cocktail Ultima GoldTM XR (Packard). The concentration of 222Rn calculated from the alpha spectrum in the window, which covers the most part of the alpha peaks. The alpha counting efficiency of radon in the selected alpha window is between 260 - 290%. Repeatability of the method is 4%. |
Strontium in plant samples | |
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Technetium analysis Tc-99 | |
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![]() | ![]() The Tc separation method used is based on the Eichrom TEVA resin. Samples are prepared and spiked with 99mTc and the Tc fraction separated using TEVA resin. Chemical yield measured with gamma spectrometer for 99mTc. The Tc fraction prepared for counting using Ultima Gold AB liquid scintillation cocktail, after storing for a week, counting on a liquid scintillation counter. |
Uranium from water sample | |
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Ion Chromatography | |
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![]() | ![]() A physical-chemical procedure for material separation used for analysing purposes and for processing. In practice, it is often used for analysing water and waste-water samples. There are anionic and cationic chromatographs. In the BfS laboratory an ion chromatograph with an anion column is exclusively used for analysis. The main problem encountered when analyzing highly saline solutions is the overloading of the analytical column with chloride. |
Preparation of gamma calibration standards | |
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ICP-MS measurements | |
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NERC-CEH can also provide: